Outline Chapter 5: An Age of Migrations

I.	Introduction--Cross – border migration is not new. The current period is the third "age" of global migration since Europeans began migrating overseas, and it is not characterized by one kind of migration but many different kinds, each driven by different economic, environmental, political, and cultural developments.
A.	 Today about 200 million people have migrated across borders and live in countries outside their homeland.  As a percentage of world population, the number of migrants-- 3 percent-- is about the same today as it was in 1950.
1.	150 to 175 million have migrated primarily for economic and sometimes environmental reasons.
2.	25 million have moved for political reasons, as a result of partition, government migration policies, or ethnic conflict and war.
a.	Half of economic and political migrants are women, a recent development that demographers have described as "feminization of migration.
b.	Women migrate for economic, political, and sociocultural reasons based on their identities as women( e.g., nurses, brides, orphaned girls, and trafficked women).
II.	Patterns of Migration: 1500-- 2000
A.	From 1500 to 1850: "Age of Coercion" people migrated from the "East" (Europe and Africa) to the "West" (the Americas).
1.	Europeans wanted workers to mine precious metals; raise cattle; and grow sugar, tobacco, cotton that could be shipped to Europe (Schaeffer, 104) .
a.	Encomienda system forced indigenous communities to devote some of their time to produce and export commodities for European overseers, receiving meager compensation
b.	Between 1500 and 1850, European states and slave and transported 14 million Africans to the Caribbean and the Americas, where they produce sugar, tobacco, cotton.
(1)	5 million died during the journey in the first year of captivity in America. European states used conviction and indenture to deliver European workers to the Americas.
(a)	Europeans used the offer of cheap land (taken from Indians) to persuade poor and dissident Europeans to migrate West.
B.	After 1850-- "The Age of European Migration."
1.	Europeans migrated in large numbers to North America, into rural areas to farm or cities to work in industry
2.	Migration from European "North" to American "West" and global "South"
3.	Migrated to European colonies in South America, Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and Australia
a.	Worked as bureaucrats, entrepreneurs, soldiers, settlers, and missionaries (Schaeffer, 105).
4.	Fifty million Europeans migrated to United States between 1850 and 1920, when US government curtailed immigration for Europeans
a.	In 1910 1.5 million Europeans migrated to the states and 14.7 percent of the population was foreign-born
b.	immigration United States reached 1910 levels in 2000, but only 12 percent  of the population was foreign-born.
C.	After 1945: "The Great Reversal"
1.	The "return" of 8 million ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to occupy Germany, and "return" of 2.6 million ethnic Japanese living across southeast Asia to Japan.
2.	European empires forced or persuaded by superpowers and independence movements in their colonies to "de-colonize" and depart from colonial territories.
3.	During World War II, US government encourage migration Mexican workers to United States through Bracero Program 
4.	During postwar period, number of migrants to United States slowly increased and reached 1910 levels in 1990. By 2005, foreign-born population in United States reached 32 million ((Schaeffer, 106).
D.	Secondary Migrations
1.	Starting in the 1970s people from the South began migrating to the oil – rich Gulf states: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and United Arab Emirates (UAE).
a.	Gulf states encourage migration of Egyptian, Palestinian, Jordanian men to work in oil and construction industries
b.	During 1990 Gulf War, Gulf states recruited male Muslim workers from countries in South Asia-- Pakistan, India, and Indonesia-- to work in industry and recruited female workers from Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Philippines to work in service industry
c.	The World Bank estimates that there are 74 million "South – to – South" migrants.
III.	Economic Causes: Demand in the North
A.	Wage disparities between North and South are large have grown during the postwar period.
1.	Manufacturing workers in the United States were paid $9.88 an hour 1980, while workers in Philippines were paid $.53 per hour, workers or Thailand $.31, and workers in China $.25.
2.	in 1995 wages for Mexican workers in manufacturing were 26 percent  of manufacturing wages in United States, and by 2000 only 12 percent of US wages (Schaeffer, 107).
B.	Non-– economic reasons for moving
1.	People Mexico live close United States, people in Bolivia live farther away, make it more expensive and difficult to migrate North
2.	Countries in the North established colonial or neo-– colonial relations with countries in the South.
a.	During Spanish-American War, US seized colonies in Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Philippines.
b.	Long – standing political ties between countries in the North and South have created pathways that migrants use to journey North
3.	Social networks play important role migration. First – generation migrants help friends and relatives migrate by providing them information about employment, giving money to pay for the travel, offering advice on visas,
C.	Why are wages higher in the North?
1.	Governments in North invested heavily in education, which increase worker skills, and businesses are invested in tools to increase worker productivity.
2.	In United States, worker incomes doubled between 1945 in 1970; in Western Europe and Japan, increased even faster (Schaeffer, 108).
3.	Economic growth and mutually reinforcing investment and trade increased wealth and wages of workers in North and distance them from countries in South.
4.	Post-World War II growth in North increased demand for low skill workers in agriculture, construction, and manufacturing.
5.	After 1970s, growth of service sector increased demand for male and, increasingly, female cooks, cashiers, security cards, janitors, truck drivers, nurses aides, laborers, and domestic service workers
6.	Wages in these industries were low, governments in North used "minimum wage" laws to keep them from falling below subsistence levels ((Schaeffer, 108).
D.	Skilled labor from the South
1.	U.S.  computer industry lobbied Congress to expand its high – end visas and provide green cards to skilled engineers from South and East Asia.
2.	University administrators urge Congress not to restrict admission of foreign students US colleges, because they pay $14.5 billion annually in tuition and increase US intellectual capital (i.e., "brain drain").
3.	Hollywood film industry has strong demand for skilled actors and directors from countries around the world (e.g. M Night Shamalayan Indian producer). 
IV.	Economic Causes: Supply in the South
A.	Wages in the South have been low first historical, political, and economic reasons.
1.	Colonization by European empires impoverished people in the South and discouraged kind of investment in education, infrastructure, and industry that might've promoted economic growth, improve productivity, and raise wages.
2.	Capitalist and communist dictatorships abolished unions, suppress wages, and jailed political dissidents, which helped keep wages low.
B.	The South and Agricultural Goods
1.	Prices they received for these commodities have fallen for most of the postwar period.
2.	Prices fell because  the South produce more of these goods, which increased the supply of oil, coffee, bananas, and sugar, while northern demand fell
3.	demand in the North fell because producers and consumers introduce new technologies are adopted new preferences they replaced a reduced demand for goods from the South.
a.	High fructose corn sweeteners and foods and beverages in the North reduce demand for cane sugar grown in the South wireless phone technologies and widespread recycling reduce demand for mined copper.
C.	Promoting Economic Development in the South
1.	"Green Revolution--hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery to increase production of food and fiber
a.	India increased grain production from 131 million metric tons to 190 mmt between 1980 and 1989; Indonesia from 33 mmt to 49 mmt the same period.
b.	Allow farmers to produce more food and fiber rich fewer workers.
c.	Farmers expanded and took over land from subsistence farmers, which displaced other workers.
d.	Green Revolution increased supply of low – skilled worker – migrants in South.
2.	Debt
a.	During1970s United States provide public and private loans to dictatorships in South to develop new infrastructure expand their production of agricultural commodities, natural resources, and manufactured goods for foreign and domestic markets
b.	US officials raise interest rates in 1979, they triggered the crisis that forced most dictators from power. Civilian governments were required to repay debts incurred by their predecessors.
c.	Selling off or "privatizing" state – owned businesses resulted in widespread layoffs, leading to displacement of workers in agriculture and industry and increased supply of unskilled and skilled workers.
3.	Foreign Direct Investment
a.	25% of all foreign investment is directed at developing countries in the South, but China has received the lion share
(1)	Coca-Cola built bottling plants produce beverages for local markets, for built auto – part factories exported components to auto – assembly plants in United States.
b.	Does foreign investment create jobs in the South and prevent workers from migrating north?
(1)	if FDI finances expansion manufacturing the South, it provides jobs and helps curb migration. If invest in agriculture, Forster, or mining, where it is used to deploy technologies that increase productivity, FDI displaced workers in increased supply of unskilled workers, which contributed to migration (Schaeffer, 112).
4.	Environmental Degradation
a.	in Senegal, local fishermen and European fishing fleets have depleted the fishery
(1)	who fish stocks have declined 75% during the last 15 years, impoverishing 200,000 people in Senegal who depend on the fishery.
b.	Expansion of shrimp farms, which export the shellfish to the north, has contributed to the decline of local fisheries in the Philippines, China, Thailand, and Indonesia.
c.	Degradation of fisheries, and rain forests and marginal lands by logging companies and subsistence farmers, has displaced people across the South and forced many to migrate North (Schaeffer, 112).
5.	Language Acquisition--people the South tried to migrate to language – affiliated countries in the North, they can speak their native language.
a.	rise of English as global standard has pretty premium on English – language skills.
(1)	In Europe 90,000 French migrants have found work in England and 20,000 live in Ireland.
(a)	One Frenchman who moved to Ireland stated, "to gain experience and improve their English," so they could eventually find better jobs back in France
b.	More than 40,000 South Korean schoolchildren live outside South Korea with a steady English.
c.	South Korean parents migrate because they think Korean schools fail to teach English and creative – thinking skills.
(1)	"Wild geese" families (i.e., flying back and forth) represent Korean parents that have separated so that their children may learn English in another country. 
(a)	Women migrate so they can raise their children
(b)	Their husbands can keep working
(c)	women can "get as far away as possible from their mothers –in – law."
V.	Conclusion